Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind
A Journey Through Human History
This book explores the history of Homo sapiens through three major revolutions: the Cognitive Revolution, the Agricultural Revolution, and the Scientific Revolution. Each revolution has significantly transformed the course of human history and the relationship between humans and other organisms.
The Cognitive Revolution
Before the Cognitive Revolution, humans were insignificant animals. They were part of the genus Homo, sharing the planet with other human species like Neanderthals and Homo erectus. However, around 70,000 years ago, a genetic mutation in Homo sapiens led to the development of a new language. This language allowed them to share information about the world, gossip, and most importantly, talk about things that did not exist. For example, they could create and believe in myths, which enabled large - scale cooperation among strangers. As a result, Homo sapiens were able to spread across the globe, outcompete other human species, and drive them to extinction. This was a turning point in human history, as it allowed humans to rapidly change their behavior and culture without relying on genetic evolution.
The Flood
After the Cognitive Revolution, Homo sapiens began to expand beyond Afro - Asia. They colonized Australia around 45,000 years ago, a feat that required advanced seafaring skills. Once in Australia, they had a profound impact on the local ecosystem. The arrival of Homo sapiens coincided with the extinction of most of Australia’s megafauna, such as the 200 - kilogram kangaroo and the marsupial lion. Similar extinctions occurred when humans reached the Americas around 16,000 years ago. These extinctions were likely caused by a combination of hunting, fire agriculture, and climate change. The large animals in these regions had no time to adapt to the new predator, Homo sapiens. This wave of extinctions was one of the biggest ecological disasters in history, demonstrating the significant impact humans can have on the environment.
The Agricultural Revolution
About 10,000 years ago, the Agricultural Revolution began. Humans transitioned from hunting and gathering to farming and herding. Instead of living off wild plants and animals, they started to manipulate the lives of a few plant and animal species, such as wheat, rice, and sheep. However, this was not a straightforward improvement. From the perspective of wheat, it domesticated Homo sapiens rather than the other way around. Wheat demanded a lot of work from humans, such as clearing fields, weeding, and watering. In return, it provided more food per unit of territory, which led to population growth. But the lives of individual farmers were often more difficult and less satisfying than those of hunter - gatherers. They faced more diseases, a more restricted diet, and greater vulnerability to natural disasters. For example, a single staple crop failure could lead to famine. Despite these hardships, the Agricultural Revolution enabled the growth of large - scale societies.
Building Pyramids
The Agricultural Revolution led to a significant increase in population and the development of settled communities. As villages grew into towns and cities, new social and political systems emerged. These systems were based on an “imagined order,” such as the Code of Hammurabi in ancient Babylon and the American Declaration of Independence. These imagined orders, though based on myths, were essential for large - scale cooperation. For instance, the Code of Hammurabi established a hierarchical social order, while the American Declaration of Independence promoted the idea of equality. However, both concepts are products of human imagination. Maintaining these imagined orders required efforts, including violence and the belief of the population. People are often unaware that the order governing their lives is imagined because it is embedded in the material world, shapes their desires, and is inter - subjective. For example, modern architecture reflects the belief in individualism, and people’s desires for holidays abroad are shaped by romantic and consumerist myths.
Memory Overload
As human societies grew more complex after the Agricultural Revolution, the need to store and process vast amounts of information became crucial. The human brain, however, has limitations in capacity, data retention, and its ability to handle numerical data. The Sumerians were the first to overcome this by inventing writing around 3500 - 3000 BC. Their system used signs for numbers and other information, which was initially mainly for record - keeping. For example, the first written messages were economic documents like “29,086 measures barley 37 months Kushim”. Writing evolved from partial to full scripts, enabling the storage of various information types and facilitating the growth of large - scale societies.
There is No Justice in History
Human history after the Agricultural Revolution is marked by the creation of imagined orders and scripts to enable mass cooperation. However, these orders, such as Hammurabi’s Code and the American Declaration of Independence, are often unjust and discriminatory. They divide people into hierarchies based on factors like race, caste, and gender, which are often grounded in fictions. For instance, the Hindu caste system originated from the Indo - Aryan invasion and was perpetuated through religious mythology. The racial hierarchy in America was a result of historical circumstances like the slave trade, and it persisted even after slavery was abolished. These hierarchies are maintained through cultural and legal means and are hard to break.
The Arrow of History
Cultures are in constant flux, and this flux is driven by internal contradictions. For example, medieval European culture grappled with the contradiction between Christianity and chivalry, which led to developments like the Crusades. Looking at history from a long - term perspective, there is a trend towards unity. Small cultures gradually coalesced into larger civilizations. For instance, in 10,000 BC, there were thousands of separate human worlds, but by 1450 AD, 90% of humans lived in the Afro - Asian mega - world. Eventually, the Afro - Asian world absorbed other worlds, leading to a single global culture with shared geopolitical, economic, legal, and scientific systems.
The Scent of Money
Hunter - gatherers and early agricultural societies relied on a barter system and an economy of favours, but as specialization grew, a more efficient way to exchange goods was needed. Money was invented as a universal medium of exchange, based on the shared belief in its value. It could be anything from cowry shells to cigarettes in prisons. For example, in Auschwitz, cigarettes served as currency. Money enabled people to compare values, exchange goods easily, and store wealth. The trust in money was built through complex social, political, and economic relations. However, money also has a dark side, as it can corrode traditional values and turn the world into a heartless marketplace.
Imperial Visions
Empires are political orders characterized by ruling over diverse peoples and having flexible borders. They have played a significant role in history, uniting different ethnic groups and regions. For example, the Roman Empire conquered many cultures, like the Numantians, and left a lasting legacy. While empires were often built through violence, they also contributed to cultural achievements. The imperial ideology, from Cyrus the Great onwards, often claimed to rule for the benefit of all, which helped in justifying their expansion. However, the process of cultural assimilation within empires was often painful for the conquered, as seen in the cases of the Iberians under Rome and the Indians under British rule.
The Law of Religion
Religion has been a unifying force in human history, alongside money and empires. It gives superhuman legitimacy to social structures. Animism was the early belief system, where humans considered the interests of other beings. After the Agricultural Revolution, polytheistic religions emerged, with gods mediating between humans and nature. Polytheism was relatively tolerant, but as some followers became more devoted to a single god, monotheistic religions like Christianity and Islam were born. These religions were often more fanatical and missionary. Dualistic religions, like Zoroastrianism, also existed, which explained the problem of evil but had difficulty with the problem of order. Modern natural - law religions, such as liberalism and Communism, are also forms of religions as they are based on a belief in a superhuman order.
The Secret of Success
History is full of unexpected turns and is difficult to explain deterministically. For example, Constantine’s choice of Christianity as the Roman state religion was just one of many possibilities at that time. History is a chaotic system, and small changes can lead to huge differences in outcomes. Also, history’s choices are not necessarily for the benefit of humans. Cultures can be seen as mental parasites that spread regardless of human well - being, similar to how viruses spread in the body. The Scientific Revolution, which began in western Europe around 1500 AD, was a major turning point, but the reasons for its origin in that place and time are still unclear.
The Discovery of Ignorance
The past 500 years have witnessed an unprecedented growth in human power, a phenomenon attributed to the Scientific Revolution. Modern science is distinct in its willingness to admit ignorance, reliance on observation and mathematics, and the pursuit of new powers. For example, Newton’s laws of motion, formulated through observation and mathematics, could explain and predict the movements of objects in the universe. Before the Scientific Revolution, most cultures believed they already knew the important truths. But modern science’s open - mindedness has expanded our understanding and led to technological advancements, though it also poses challenges to traditional beliefs.
The Marriage of Science and Empire
The Scientific Revolution and modern imperialism were closely intertwined. James Cook’s expedition to the South Pacific in 1768 is a prime example. Sent to observe the Venus transit, the expedition also brought back a wealth of scientific data in various fields. However, it also had a dark side - it laid the foundation for British occupation and the subjugation of native cultures in Australia and New Zealand. Before 1850, Europe did not have a significant technological advantage over Asia, but its unique combination of scientific thinking and imperial ambition set the stage for its later dominance.
The Capitalist Creed
Capitalism has played a crucial role in modern history, enabling economic growth through credit and the reinvestment of profits. The story of Samuel Greedy’s bank and the bakery investment shows how trust in the future allows for the creation of credit, fueling economic activity. Adam Smith’s idea that selfish pursuit of profit can benefit society as a whole was revolutionary. Capitalism also influenced European imperialism, with the Dutch and British empires being established and run by capitalist joint - stock companies. However, it has faced criticism for its role in exploitation, like the Atlantic slave trade and the exploitation of workers during the Industrial Revolution.
The Wheels of Industry
The Industrial Revolution was a revolution in energy conversion, which overcame the limitations of traditional energy sources. The steam engine, for example, converted heat into movement, first used to pump water in mines and later to power textile looms and locomotives. This led to an explosion in human productivity, especially in agriculture. However, industrial agriculture has also brought about the mechanization of animal farming, treating animals as machines and causing them suffering. At the same time, the growth of the consumerist ethic has emerged to ensure the continuous consumption of the ever - increasing products of industry.
A Permanent Revolution
The Industrial Revolution brought about a series of profound changes. It led to ecological degradation as humans exploited the environment for resources, but also caused a significant shift in human society. For example, the traditional rhythms of agriculture were replaced by the strict timetables of industry. The family and local community, which were once the pillars of social life, started to decline, with their functions being taken over by the state and the market. Despite the increase in human power and economic growth, there is a debate about whether people are actually happier.
And They Lived Happily Ever After
This chapter delves into the complex question of human happiness. It examines various perspectives on what makes people happy, from the role of material wealth to social and psychological factors. For instance, studies show that while money can increase happiness to a certain extent, beyond that point, its impact is minimal. Family and community also play a crucial role in people’s well - being. Moreover, the chapter explores how expectations influence happiness, suggesting that our constantly evolving expectations can either enhance or detract from our sense of contentment.
The End of Homo Sapiens
The book concludes by looking at the potential future of Homo sapiens. With the rapid development of technology, humans are on the verge of transcending their biological limits. Biological engineering, as seen in the creation of genetically modified organisms like Alba the fluorescent rabbit, is already challenging the laws of natural selection. Cyborg engineering is also on the rise, with humans increasingly integrating with inorganic parts. Additionally, the development of inorganic life forms and the possibility of creating artificial minds raise profound ethical, social, and political questions about what it means to be human.